Two opposing movements existed in Russia in the 19th century. In rural areas there was a movement that could hardly be called a movement. It was actually more of a planted element. The indigenous foundation that existed from time immemorial kept alive the spirit of the land and the system of a subjugated underclass. Many of the most representative elements of this situation actually existed among the lower class (pre-emancipation serfs and post-emancipation peasants). This movement rarely had a visible voice because it was uneducated and not exposed to the means of amplification. Other writers of the time presented idealized conceptions of the fundamental aspects of these indigenous peoples. Ivan Turgenev, in his serial Sketches from a Hunter's Album, attempted to capture the fate of this group. In this work we can also see the basic human characteristics of these people. Two particular plays, "Living Relic" and "Kasyan from the Beautiful Lands", ignored the peasants' difficulties and focused on describing two quintessential examples of the Eastern conception of man. In "Living Relic", the subject is Lukeria, a completely disabled peasant girl who lives alone in a shed on the narrator's estate. Kasyan, at the center of the other story, is a wandering and quiet peasant. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on “Why Violent Video Games Should Not Be Banned”? Get an original essay Western ideas have invaded the cities. Proponents of the Western movement have often sought to rationally tear away the mystical veil that Russia had unconsciously used to conceal its unprogressive ways. This group had a strong voice and knew how to use it. Because of the plethora of supporters, the moral or historical teachings of Westerners cannot be reduced to a single voice. However, Nicholas Cherneshevsky represented many of the most important characteristics of the Westernists, most fundamentally in his pure faith in rationality. Cherneshevsky, of course, had specific lessons of usefulness that flowed from his own rationality. He believed that rationality could only lead to the search for maximum pleasure, and therefore utility in life. This idea was also in vogue among rationalists in Russia at the time of all the works discussed. From these two poles was born Konstantin Dimtrievich Levin in Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy. On the question of utility and questions of everyday life, Levine seems to agree with Cherneshevsky. In this respect it is very different from the completely a-practical oriental image. However, even if this difference is not trivial, it is undeniably closer to the Eastern conception of man than to that represented by Cherneshevsky and his own brother Koznyshev. Levin's thought process and his essential behavior - his soul, as Tolstoy might want to call it - mark him as fundamentally similar to these characters. Levin supports Cherneshevsky's main statement about the correct activity of man. Both agree that utility is the object of everyday life. Cherneshevsky says that "he [man] is guided by his self-interest, which leads him to abstain from less gain or less pleasure in order to obtain greater gain or pleasure » (52). This pleasure can be achieved through action and work. In his own words: “Idleness is the absence of action; it obviously cannot produce the phenomenon called pleasant sensation” (47). Utility is Cherneshevsky's name for the good obtained when everyone strives for something moregreat personal pleasure. Levin finds great joy in his own work, so much so that at one point, while thinking about his ideas for improving the efficiency of his field, "The idea filled Levin with great excitement. He did not sleep half the night, thinking about putting his idea into practice” (388). his way of life, he feels satisfied on his return to work After his last trip to the city, Tolstoy says in retrospect of Levin: "having lived so long in Moscow, a life of nothing other than talking, eating. and drinking, it degenerated” (796) Their similar views on specific utility can be seen in their thoughts on physical beauty, “flowers, those enchanting springs of perfume, those exquisite but ephemeral fountains of pleasure. in our eyes, are a pleasure or an enjoyment. The plant on which they grow is utilitarian” (57). As Levin sits eating with Oblonsky, Levin similarly speaks of the carefully manicured nails of one of Oblonsky's friends and goes on to say, "We in the country try to have our hands in a state which is most convenient for working." 43). Levin's sense of usefulness, his singular concern for the unglorified life as well as his desire to disseminate these ideas through his writings, seem to be the end of Cherneshevsky's usefulness project. Unlike the Sketches and Levin at the end of Anna Karenina, Cherneshevsky believes that utility is the source of meaning in life. Cherneshevsky boldly states that “as in human life as a whole, all various phenomena in the field of human motivations and conduct arise from a single nature and are governed by a single law” (49). This law is that of maximum utility. Cherneshevsky proposes the link between utility and rationality. Not all Russian rationalists came to the conclusion that usefulness is the ultimate goal of all life, but Cherneshevsky believes that it could not be otherwise. “Only good deeds are prudent; only he who is good is rational; and it is only rational to the extent that it is good” (57). Although Levin agrees with the fruit of Cherneshevsky's rationality, he does not feel as close to Cherneshevsky in the way of thinking that helped reach this conclusion. In this difference we can see Levin's oriental. Kasyan and Lukeria have no apparent practical use. Kasyan opens in brief conversation to tell the narrator, “I have no occupation of any kind. It's a bad mentality that I've had since I was little. I work as long as I can, but I am a poor worker” (133). Kasyan is said to have the ability to "heal" people, but he uses this skill at his discretion, and often not when asked by another. Kasyan is a definite nomad and does not pretend to be useful to anyone. The ability to be useful in a practical way has been taken away from Lukeria. Fortunately, her condition does not require the care or time of another person, but she is clearly not capable of doing anything for anyone else. She can't do anything but reach for her cup of water. Turgenev makes it clear that their lives have meaning, but that meaning does not come from utility. The mode of thought used by Cherneshevsky to reach his conclusion on utility, rationality, uses an important tool: words. He believes that every question in life can be simplified into a simple syllogism or metaphor. With a few cleverly placed words, Cherneshevsky believes that even the world's most enduring questions can be dispensed with. At one point heasks: “Is man a good being or an evil being? He quickly goes on to say: “From the first application of scientific analysis, everything turns out to be as clear as possible” (38). After demonstrating the ease with which this problem is solved using key words such as "predicate" and "deductions", he concludes: "Thus, from the theoretical point of view, the problem of the good and bad qualities of human nature is solved so easily that it cannot be solved. even be called a problem” (39). In the first paragraph of the essay, he removes any idea of ​​God. “Sciences prove that no dualism is evident in man...since everything that occurs and manifests in man comes only from his real nature, he cannot have another nature” (29 ). This quote is important because it demonstrates Cherneshevky's faith in words. But it is also important because here, at the beginning of his work, we see Cherneshevsky's rejection of anything higher than words and rationality, of anything more than a singular nature. While he addresses these supposedly big questions in a few paragraphs, Cherneshevsky could never be called concise. The most amazing aspect of Cherneshevsky's work is that at 120 pages, his essential ideas can easily, and probably for the best, be compressed to 15 pages (as we learned the hard way). Even at 15 pages, there's plenty of room for Tcherneshevky's almost comical, logical wandering. while Levin agrees with Cherneshevsky on utility, he has a more fundamental difference that cannot easily be reconciled. This problem begins with words, the tool of the rationalist. It is with words and what they represent that Levin separates from Tcherneshevsky and joins the oriental characters of Sketches. When Lukeria introduces herself, she immediately volunteers: “See how talkative I’ve become.” As the story develops, the sentiment described in this statement becomes the great irony of the story. She is described by the farm overseer as “a quiet person, if ever there was one” (p. 367). There is an obvious physical reason that keeps Lukeria silent in that Lukeria lives in a shed where no one visits her. Yet it is much more than this physical possibility that defines Lukeria as calm. Although Lukeria is happy to have a conversation with the narrator, it is clearly no great loss to her when he leaves her in peace and solitude again. “Now that you are leaving, I will be quiet as long as I want” (366). When the narrator suggests that Lukeria be taken to the hospital, she tells him that she doesn't want that: "I'm not afraid of being alone. Really it's better, really it is!" (361). Lukeria is not only able to do without words and people, but she consciously rejects them. Kasyan is a “wandering sheep” and clearly does not seek out people or conversation. Even once in the company of the narrator Kasyan, “he maintained stubborn silence and answered all my questions peremptorily and reluctantly” (128). After the couple goes hunting in the forest, the narrator is “annoyed by his [Kasyan’s] silence” (131). This causes the narrator to sit down to unwittingly participate in the beauty of a silent existence. The narrator says of the experience: "You lie there and keep watching: words cannot express the pleasure and tranquility, and how sweet is the feeling that invades your heart" (131). In this short passage, an overview of the meaning that these figures have. These oriental characters find no meaning in Cherneshevsky's utilitarian conception of life. They are not practicalfor other humans themselves and, furthermore, reject the tool of rationality (i.e. words) that redeems utility. The meaning of life seems to be based on an intrinsic beauty of life that is completely removed from anything valued or determined by rationality, from anything that could possibly be placed within Cherneshevsky's unique nature. Turgenev illustrates this principle most effectively by removing everything of conventional value from The Life of Lukeria and examining the pure act of living through it. Nothing more than the simplest existence is given to Lukeria: "I feel that I am alive, I breathe - and that is all there is of me" (359), and yet her life seems to be filled only with beauty. As she describes the time she spends alone, "Sometimes I lie alone like I do now - and it's like there's no one else on the whole earth but me. And I am the only person alive! And a wonderful feeling comes over me, as if I had been visited by a thought that takes possession of me - it's something wonderful" (361) Since Kasyan does not share. his solitary experiences with the narrator, we are left with the small glimpse of his private life given during the hunting trip. The tone here recalls the mystical and wondrous tone of Lukeria's time alone. Kasyan and Lukeria's existence is imbued with such beauty that she ultimately seems to transcend mortality in a way that Cherneshevsky could only categorically reject in reference to her unified nature of man. The titles of “healer” and “holy man” were given to Kasyan. Although Lukeria is not given such titles, her physical description marks her as practically an idol herself. This physical description is not about his appearance, but rather the aura that accompanies his existence. It shines in bronze; it seems with the light of life. This light surely does not come from any earthly source, because it does not capture any ordinary vital element. Lukeria is able to live and shine without any earthly sustenance. She eats nothing and only survives on water. This is reminiscent of an intrinsically superhuman composition. While Kasyan keeps others alive through magic, Lukeria maintains her own earthly existence through magic. This must be heavily nuanced because ultimately the Eastern image culminates in a strong feeling of an omniscient God. The holiness of the characters is intrinsically accompanied by a complete faith in a higher God. Because of the static view of these figures, it is difficult to know whether their holiness is directly attributable to their faith in God. What we do know is the beauty and sustenance these characters find in existing unfettered by the routine of normal existence. From Levin's first appearance, his hesitance toward the conversation is noticeable. When we meet Levin, he speaks reservedly to his good friend Oblonsky and doesn't have much to say. In the first visible meeting with his deeply rationalist brother, Koznyshev, Levin enters to find him arguing furiously with a “professor.” Levin apparently does not seem to decipher the enigmatic speech of the rationalists and categorizes the speech as "a sea of ​​subtle distinctions, reservations, quotations, allusions and appeals to authorities, and it was with difficulty that he understood what they were talking about” (30). Yet the moments where he finally realizes the uselessness of words are in those fleeting moments where his life finds pure, unqualified joy. The first of these great events occurs when Levin gets carried away mowing the fields with the peasants. In a small excerpt from the broad panoramic view that Tolstoy offers to this scene, Tolstoy says: “More Levinemowed for a long time, the more he felt moments of unconsciousness in which it seemed that the scythe was mowing by itself, a body full of life and own consciousness and as if by magic, without thinking about it, the work turned out to be regular and precise by him -even. Those were the happiest times" (289). Levin had discovered a phenomenon completely inexplicable by rational methods, but he seems. infinitely filled with happiness. This moment provides insight into a phenomenon not unlike the inexplicable force that drives Lukeria After this timeless day in the field, Levin returns to his brother, with whom he had an irritating argument the day before. Koznyshev immediately pounces on Levin to talk about everything, but especially their conversation. the day before Tolstoy said of their meeting: “Levin listened to his brother, did not understand a single word and did not want to understand” (295). . in their love. Levin and Kitty meet for the first time in the Oblonskys' living room. From the first sight, Kitty is "delighted and so confused by her own pleasure that there was a moment...[she] believed. that she would collapse and start crying” (437). At the same time, Levin has “the impression that he is going to sob from the rapture that floods his heart” (437). They get to this point without a few meaningless words being exchanged between them. When they sit down to eat dinner for Levin, feelings that recall the night after shearing return. "Everyone took part in the conversation except Kitty and Levin... But these ideas, once of no importance to him, seemed to come to him as in a dream, and no longer had the slightest interest to him. It seemed strange to him that they were so eager to talk about what was of no use to anyone” (445) It is after dinner that the true uselessness of words becomes apparent in the face of the true meaning. Levin begins to talk to Kitty, he finds that all he can get out is a "poorly expressed idea", but they soon move completely into a realm of voiceless communication. Each writes down the first letter of the words they think of, and the response is invariably similar to Kitty's mumbled, "I understand." At first, Levin realizes the difference between the rational discussion at the table and that between Kitty and himself. "He was struck by this transition. confusing and verbose [emphasis mine]. discussion with Pestsov and his brother to this laconic, clear, almost silent communication of the most complex ideas” (453). In the end, not a word is spoken but a few meaningless mumbles, and yet: "In their conversation, everything had been said" (455). When Koznyshev first arrives at the Levin estate, the two men visit the estate on horseback. Koznyshev attempts to describe the aesthetic appeal of the country that made him leave the city. Koznyshev's visit precedes any of the intense moments mentioned above, but even here, Levin. , it is said, "did not like to talk and hear about the beauty of nature. Words for him diminished the beauty of what he saw" (p. 275). It is the same feeling that pushes the reader and Levin to leave the fields of Mashkin Upland and the Oblonskys' dining room. Another moment The novel's revealing moment comes when Levin thinks he has found the meaning of life by striving for ultimate usefulness. This is the moment mentioned above where he stays up all night in excitement It seems. that this excitement comes from the “vague hope of finding a remedy for all this [the inefficiency of his farm] – all this mixed with a feeling of inner turmoil and the expectation of a near solution” (387). At the time, Levin thought that this response, which he, 1990).