Mental illness can affect anyone at any time, there is no immunity or vaccination for these problems, unlike other illnesses physical and ailments in the medical field. The mental disorders we will focus on are caused by factors beyond human control, such as genetics and stress, for example. In this article, we will discuss six different mental illnesses: schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, anxiety disorder, borderline personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. We will briefly look at each disease, along with its causes, the pharmaceutical methods used to help treat these diseases, and how these medications work. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on “Why Violent Video Games Should Not Be Banned”? Get an original essay To begin, we will first look at schizophrenia; a chronic mental disorder affecting 1% of the population (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 337). This mental illness is classified as a neurodevelopmental disease because it is highly correlated with brain abnormalities within the structure; which in turn impacts normal brain function and causes symptoms of psychosis like hallucinations, thought disorders and delusions. These symptoms of schizophrenia are often referred to as positive symptoms because they are commonly seen in people suffering from psychosis. Other symptoms that accompany this illness are problems such as social withdrawal, loss of motivation and interest, as well as a flat affect on emotions (regarding expression and reaction). These symptoms are called negative symptoms because they disrupt what are considered normal behaviors and emotional processes. Symptoms of schizophrenia often appear in adolescents and young adults, with most being diagnosed as patients transition into adulthood. Currently, the cause of schizophrenia has not been discovered, but researchers have linked schizophrenia to genetic factors. Although there is no specific cause, there are treatment options for people suffering from schizophrenia. Schizophrenia has come a long way over the past 75 years in terms of treatment. With discoveries about how specific neurotransmitters are involved in this mental illness, such as dopamine, serotonin and glutamate; Researchers have developed drugs to help treat schizophrenia. The development of first-generation antipsychotics in the early 1950s, then the subsequent development of second-generation antipsychotics, are mainly responsible for this progression (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 350). First generation medications include, but are not limited to: haloperidol, loxapine, pimozide, and meloindone. These medications work and help patients with positive symptoms associated with this disease by blocking D2 receptors in the dopamine pathways, as well as other receptors such as acetylcholine, histamine, and norepinephrine receptors (Advokat , Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 346-347). . Although first-generation medications were more effective at reducing negative symptoms, some serious side effects accompanied these medications, such as tardive dyskinesia that causes involuntary muscle movements. Another side effect noted would be extrapyramidal symptoms; which may include neuroleptic-induced parkinsonism, dystonia and akathisia(Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 347). These serious and unpleasant side effects have been the main driving factors in the development of second-generation antipsychotic drugs; Including medications like clozapine, risperidone, quetiapine, and aripiprazole, to name a few. Of course, not all medications are free of side effects, but these second generation medications apparently have less serious side effects than those of the first generation. Common side effects experienced with the second generation are weight gain and diabetes. Side effects seen with other drugs like clozapine include problems such as metabolic syndrome and agranulocytosis, a deficiency of granulocytes in the blood; which in turn increases a patient's risk of infection (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 354). Another possible but uncommon side effect of these antipsychotics is sudden cardiac death. As for future research and development regarding schizophrenia, researchers are trying to find ways to manage the negative symptoms and cognitive problems caused by schizophrenia, as most medications only control the psychosis aspect (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. Studies are currently underway focusing on genes linked to schizophrenia. The National Institute of Mental Health published a study it co-funded, which “identified several genetic variants linked to schizophrenia. that alter the expression of other genes in human brain circuits involved in disease” (National Institute of Mental Health). In addition to these findings, they also “identified a subnetwork of approximately 1,400 genes.” – many in disease-related genomic sites – encoding components involved in communications between neurons that are significantly disrupted in schizophrenia” (National Institute of Mental Health). With these findings and continued research on this topic, we hope that one day the cause of this mental illness will become clearer, so that better treatment plans and medications can be developed to help those struggling. with schizophrenia. The topic affects more than 5.4 million Americans and is known as bipolar disorder (National Alliance on Mental Health). Bipolar disorder affects the brain, causing uncontrollable mood swings and strong emotions, also called mania, as well as emotional breakdowns or depression. This can be a vicious cycle, occurring only once every few months or once every few days, depending on the individual. These mood changes also affect the energy and behavior of the suffering individual. Symptoms of bipolar mania include: excessive irritability, increased energy, decreased sleep, inability to concentrate, and impulsivity. Some depressive symptoms associated with bipolar are: prolonged sadness, social withdrawal, and loss of energy (Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance). Similar to schizophrenia, bipolar does not have a direct cause at this stage, but is linked to genetics and abnormal brain function. Currently, there are different classes of medications to treat bipolar disorder, such as antipsychotics and mood stabilizers. Although we understand the mechanism of action of antipsychotics, we cannot conclude the same for mood stabilizers. We are, however, on the verge of understanding how they work. In the text Julien's Drug Primer of Action, written by Robert Julien, Clair Advokat and Joseph Comaty, it isexplained how “mood stabilizers can reverse some of the deficiencies in brain structure. and levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factors and these reversals may be relevant to the therapeutic benefit of mood stabilizers in bipolar disorder” (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 472). The most commonly prescribed mood stabilizer for bipolar is lithium, as lithium is effective in treating 60 to 80 percent of acute manic and hypomanic episodes. Like all medications, lithium has drawbacks in terms of side effects and toxicity, as well as the fact that it does not effectively control rapid-cycling mania; which leads to a decrease in its use over the years (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 475). Side effects of lithium include problems such as tremors, skin reactions such as rashes or acne, and ataxia. Besides lithium, a few other mood stabilizers in the anticonvulsant category are used to treat bipolar disorder. These medications include: carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine, gabapentin, valproic acid, and topiramate (Advokat, Comaty, & Julien, 2014). Additionally, antipsychotic medications have been used to treat bipolar disorder by blocking the D2 receptors as in the case of schizophrenia, with the most commonly used antipsychotic medications for bipolar disorder being risperidone and olanzapine. Looking to the future in this area, current research continues to better understand bipolar disorder. A recent study led by Fernando S. Goes at John Hopkins Medical shows a link between genes responsible for schizophrenia and autism, with genes linked to bipolar disorder (Brain and Behavior Research Foundation). In addition to research into causality, research is underway on topics such as combination therapies for treatment. Next, we will discuss another very common mental health problem that affects more than 30 million Americans, major depressive disorder, also known as depression; a serious problem which is responsible for 70% of stays in psychiatric hospitals and 40% of suicides (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 386). Depression causes alterations in emotions and mood, so it is classified as an affective disorder. Symptoms of depression are prolonged sadness, irritability, feelings of hopelessness, loss of interest and suicidal thoughts. The cause of depression has long been debated, but Harvard researchers say it is important to note that “depression does not simply result from an excess or lack of certain brain chemicals; “depression has many possible causes,” which can include poor mood regulation by the brain, genetic vulnerability, and stressful or traumatic life events (Harvard Health Publication). Stress is said to be a major factor in depression. Depression, like many other mental illnesses, does not discriminate based on race, age, or gender. In fact, 10 percent of men and up to 25 percent of women experience depression during their lifetime (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 386). Like other illnesses and conditions, depression can be treated with medication or psychotherapy, even a combination of the two. When it comes to treating depression with pharmaceuticals, most people who suffer from it are currently prescribed oral antidepressants which are either monoamine oxidase inhibitors such as selegiline or monoamine oxidase inhibitors.selective for serotonin reuptake such as Prozac, Zoloft, Celexa and Paxil (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 397-402). Before these new age drugs, depression was treated using what are called tricyclic antidepressants. These include medications like imipramine, desipramine, and doxepin, to name a few. Tricyclic antidepressants work in two ways: one by blocking the presynaptic serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake transporter; and second, by blocking postsynaptic histamine and acetylcholine receptors (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p.395). Prescribers have shifted from tricyclic antidepressants to serotonin reuptake inhibitors due to lower toxicity and increased patient comfort. Although SSRIs and MAOIs are more frequently prescribed, this does not eliminate the risk of side effects from either medication. Side effects of both can include insomnia, nausea, and headache (Mayo Clinic). And another commonly experienced side effect with SSRIs includes sexual dysfunction (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 407). Research is currently underway in many different areas of depression, but one of particular interest is the development of ketamine, a drug originally classified as a psychedelic anesthetic and popular for abuse in 1990s. When this drug is abused, it produces positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia, but its use does not lead to schizophrenia (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 257). It has been suspected that ketamine itself may have antidepressant properties, but more recently it has been discovered that a byproduct of ketamine after its metabolization could potentially hold the key to antidepressant action. With funding from the National Institute of Mental Health, scientists discovered a ketamine breakdown metabolite that "[s]ignificantly reversed depression-like behaviors in mice without triggering any of the anesthetic, dissociative, or addictive side effects." associated with ketamine” (National Institute of Mental Health). The metabolite derived from ketamine breakdown activates AMPA receptors, leading to antidepressant effects. Researcher Todd Gould of the University of Maryland School of Medicine explains what this finding could mean, saying, "Now that we know that the antidepressant actions of ketamine in mice are due to a metabolite, not the ketamine itself, the next steps are to confirm its effectiveness. similarly in humans, and determine whether this can lead to therapeutic improvement for patients” (National Institute of Mental Health). These types of breakthroughs have the potential to change antidepressant pharmacology as we know it. Moving forward, the next mental illness we will focus our attention on is anxiety disorder, one of the leading mental disorders in the United States. Anxiety disorders affect 18% of the United States population, or more than 40 million people (National Alliance on Mental Illness). Types of anxiety disorders include: generalized anxiety disorder, separation anxiety, phobic anxiety, social anxiety, and panic disorder; but the type of anxiety we're going to focus on is generalized anxiety which alone affects millions of adults each year. This disorder is defined by excessive worrying thoughts, sometimes unrealistic, but persistent for more than 6 months. Anxiety is often diagnosed by its psychological symptomsand physiological. Psychological symptoms that sufferers may experience are things like irritability, tension, restlessness, feelings of apprehension, etc. (National Alliance on Mental Illness). Physiological symptoms can also take shape, impacting physical well-being. For example, those who suffer from generalized anxiety may experience stomach upset, shortness of breath, tachycardia, headache, sweating, and insomnia (National Alliance on Mental Illness). General anxiety disorder does not have chemical causes, but it is similar to depression and the other disorders mentioned previously in that stress is usually the cause. Genetics may also play a role in the development of general anxiety and other anxiety disorders. Additionally, generalized anxiety can be treated with medication, like almost all other mental illnesses. Treatment of generalized anxiety disorder can be carried out with medications belonging to the category of antidepressants or anti-anxiety medications belonging to the category of benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines have a different mechanism of action than antidepressants. In Julien's Drug Primer of Action, it is explained that “benzodiazepines facilitate the binding of GABA to its receptor. They do not directly stimulate the GABA receptor; rather, they bind to a site adjacent to the GABA receptor, producing a three-dimensional conformational change in the structure of the receptor that, in turn, increases the affinity of GABA for the receptor” (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 436 ). ). Benzodiazepines commonly prescribed to treat anxiety include medications like Valium, Klonopin, Ativan, and Xanax. Although effective in treatment, these drugs are intended for short-term use as they can be abused and users become dependent on them. These medications can also cause a range of side effects such as ataxia, drowsiness, motor difficulties and disorientation (Advokat, Comaty & Julien, 2014, p. 448). Antidepressants commonly prescribed to treat anxiety include Zoloft, Paxil, Lexapro, Prozac, and Celexa. The side effects of antidepressants are more physiological and include problems such as insomnia, nausea, and headaches, as noted previously. Anxiety research has attempted to better understand anxiety and its internal framework, in order to improve treatments. Two researchers for the National Institute of Mental Health, Daniel Pine and Joseph LeDoux, believe that we have been too quick to attribute all feelings of anxiety to the amygdala, the fear circuit in the brain, but "of growing evidence [suggests] that such subjective feeling states are mediated. via circuits different from those of defensive behaviors,” leading them to examine fear and anxiety as two distinct systems (National Institute of Mental Health). With this new view of fear and anxiety divided into two systems, these researchers believe they may be able to adapt or adapt current medications to better treat anxiety. LeDoux and Pine believe this achievement is possible through their new understanding of the dual system, using brain biomarkers to identify specific circuit dysfunctions and then using that information to improve pharmaceuticals and facilitate psychotherapy techniques (National Institute mental health). This could potentially lead to other advances in the future, such as reducing the general side effects of anxiety as well as those that other psychomedications can cause, in addition to treating.