Cross-dressing in the early modern stage was a much exploited theatrical device. It subverts traditional conceptions of genre, evoking a recurring sense of dramatic irony. Jean E. Howard explains that "differences in behavior" and "distinctions in dress" were considered very important during the Renaissance because anatomical theories of the sexes considered men and women to be virtually identical. In England, cross-dressing male actors drew harsh criticism from Puritans, who considered their plays "public enemies of virtue and religion." But the homoerotic effects of cross-dressing overshadowed the additional functions it can serve in Renaissance drama, namely, emitting a dominant sense of meta-theatricality, distorting gender boundaries, and empowering the heroine. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on “Why Violent Video Games Should Not Be Banned”? Get an original essayEarly modern attitudes toward cross-dressing on stage were rather contradictory. Janette Dillon explains why the Puritans were particularly repelled by cross-dressing. She cites Stephen Gosson, a former playwright and poet, who bitterly observed that dressing as the opposite sex was tantamount to "forging and falsifying, contrary to the express rule of the word of God." Thus, when Celia blames Rosalind in As You Like It for adopting masculine attire, she is expressing a widespread view of the Renaissance. As Celia harshly puts it: “You have simply abused our sex in your speeches of love. We must have your doublet and stockings ripped off over your head. The harsh sound of "pluck'd" accentuates the ferocity of her reproach, establishing a change in the balance of power between the two women. Contemporary audiences may find this unduly condemning of Rosalind's behavior, given that she almost single-handedly restores order to the social hierarchy. But for the authorities, contravening “the will of God” would have been considered an extreme sin. Ironically, however, Celia was traditionally a man dressed as a woman, so she too would have been guilty of "abusing" her gender. Nevertheless, cross-dressing may have been an accepted practice among the theater's lower classes. Historian David Cressy cites Linda Woodbridge as having found evidence of a full-fledged "transvestite women's movement" in early modern England. Women would primarily dress as men for practical reasons; “plead in court, regain a fortune or practice a profession prohibited to women”. In As You Like It and Twelfth Night, Shakespeare's cross-dressing heroines are equally pragmatic. Rosalind effectively facilitates the marriage of four couples through her role as Ganymede, while the disguised Viola undertakes the man's trade as Orsino's servant. But, in a sense, their independence is reduced because the two women conclude the play by getting married, returning to submissive female characters. In contrast, Portia and Nerissa in The Merchant of Venice successfully defend their own husbands in court, disguised as doctors and clerks. Their spouses, Bassanio and Graziano, are shocked that two women could achieve such a feat. » asks Graziano himself; “What, are we cuckolds before we deserve it?” Of course, neither woman actually commits adultery. But these words allude to the idea that, through trickery, Portia and Nerissa mocked their husbands' masculinity. For Elizabethan audiences, thisprobably constituted the main comedy of the play. Furthermore, Stephen Orgel perceptively notes that women made up a considerable portion of the audience, so the success of a play depended "to a large extent on the receptivity of women." So, perhaps playwrights used female cross-dressing in a direct attempt to appeal to ambitious early modern women. Paradoxically, many Elizabethan critics and actors would not tolerate the introduction of actresses on stage as a solution to the problem of cross-dressing. Dillon cites playwright Thomas Nashe, who argued that an all-male cast produced "honorable and courageous performances, not consisting of...a whore." Nashe refers to the fact that many actresses were lured into prostitution; the theater was a notoriously licentious arena. But he somewhat unfairly places all actresses in this category, suggesting that he had deeper prejudices against female actresses. Dillon suggests that this was because "the idea of ​​[women] belonging to professional businesses was virtually unthinkable in England." At best, an actress might hold a simple amateur status, which would perhaps be reinforced if she married a man of respectable class. Snobbery towards actresses was commonplace in Renaissance England; it was necessary to travel abroad to observe more equal treatment. Shakespeare's contemporary, Thomas Coryat, wrote of his surprise at seeing actresses in Venice; “They played him with as much grace as I’ve ever seen a male actor.” Overall, however, it was not considered appropriate for a woman to "lower herself" by acting out. This is why great importance was given to Renaissance cross-dressing as a vehicle for homoeroticism. Valérie Traub is an ardent defender of this point of view. She argues that the practice of boy actors playing female roles “made complex desires and fantasies possible and mediated cultural anxieties.” She suggests that it is only through theater that “homoeroticism can be safely explored.” This assessment certainly seems partly true of Shakespeare's As You Like It; Rosalind's masculine personality acts as a medium through which gay and lesbian desire can develop. Critics Stephen Orgel and James Saslow largely agree that Shakespeare (as an educated man) deliberately chose the name "Ganymede" for Rosalind as a classical homoerotic allusion to the lover of the Greek god Zeus. So while Rosalind's flirting may seem innocent, encouraging Orlando to "woo" her, there is clearly a homosexual undercurrent to their encounters. Additionally, Rosalind herself was traditionally played by a male actor. Shakespeare thus delights in reminding us of his true identity, as Ganymede ironically says; “I should have been a woman of rights.” The dramatic irony operates here intelligently on two levels; firstly because Ganymede's disguise hides Rosalind, but also because the actor who plays Rosalind is in reality a man. Shakespeare even hints at the possibility of a lesbian relationship between Rosalind and Phoebe. The young shepherdess, Phoebe, reflects on the “unusual pretty redness of [Ganymede’s] lip.” » She concludes ambiguously; “I don't like him, and I don't hate him,” probably because she can't reconcile his attractive feminine qualities with his masculine identity. As a result, the homoerotic undertones of Twelfth Night are undeniable. Orsino's recently revealed hasty proposal to Viola suggests he was nurturingpreviously desires for her as Cesario. Orsino grandly declares that “Thou shalt henceforth be thy master's mistress,” implying that Viola's public transformation has legitimized her secret homosexual love for her servant. Orsino's earlier assertion that "no woman can bear the beating of such strong passion / As love gives my heart" begins to take on a new homoerotic meaning. Ironically, Orsino had already taken Cesario aside and stated frankly: "If ever you love, / In sweet sorrows, remember me." » At the same time, even if we consider Viola to be definitively feminine, Orsino's proposal remains rather sinister. This seems symptomatic of his attempts to maintain a strict patriarchal society in Illyria. Viola is assumed to accept his proposal, but her silence is practically deafening. Additionally, Viola attracts considerable female attention from Olivia when in disguise. After their first meeting, Olivia dwells on Cesario's supposedly masculine features; “Your tongue, your face, your limbs, your actions and your spirit/Give you your fivefold coat of arms. In a very illuminating aside, Olivia sees true love in Cesario's eyes, saying: "A murderous guilt shows itself no sooner/Than a love that would seem hidden." » Even then, in a literal sense, Viola is still a man playing a woman, just like Olivia who marries Viola's twin, Sebastian. The ostensible reestablishment of patriarchal values ​​through marriage could therefore be interpreted as an affirmation of homosexual love. But the main difficulty in accepting Traub's view is that many Renaissance plays contain examples of homosexual love, even if that affection cannot be consummated. Cross-dressing is not always necessary for homosexual desire to flourish. In Twelfth Night, Antonio's implicit love for Sebastian becomes increasingly complicated when he mistakenly believes that Cesario (actually Viola, Sebastian's twin) is the object of his affection. If we consider that Cesario would traditionally have been a man playing the role of a woman, pretending to be a man, then the lines between the sexes become insurmountably blurred. Antonio concludes his somewhat perplexed part by asking, “Who is Sebastian?” " But most importantly, in this play, the homosexual undercurrent in the relationship between Antonio and Sebastian can be inferred from their earlier dialogue, without the aid of female attire. Sebastian addresses Antonio as if he were a troubled lover; “Antony!” O my dear Antonio,/How the hours have tormented and tortured me/Since I lost you! This motif of torture is recurring in traditional Petrachan-style love poetry, hinting at a deeper passion in Sebastian's heart. Similarly, in Romeo and Juliet, there is obvious homosexual tension between Romeo and his friend Mercutio. The two friends' constant sexual play on words is akin to a duel, each trying to outdo the other. In one exchange, Romeo concludes with the explicit comment, “Well, then my pump is well flowered,” meaning that his penis is sexually active. These overtly homoerotic moments undermine the idea that Shakespeare's play is a tragic story of young, heterosexual love. Traub's argument therefore applies best to a woman's love for a woman in Renaissance drama. Lesbianism was barely recognized as a form of sexuality; so, perhaps cross-dressing men could express the possibility of lesbian love better than two actresses. Most notably, Rosalind and Celia in As You Like It are described as symbolizing "Juno's swans", insinuating a closer intimacy than.