There have been many political crises over the centuries in which the people of a country have risen up against inequality, demanding rights and a fair chance to access citizenship. The Roman Republic, the Italian city-states, and the French Revolution all shared common themes of equality. In Italy, after the beginning of the 13th century, dual systems of government became necessary in many city-states to satisfy the guilds, tired of the despotic rule ruled by the old aristocratic families. The 12th century had been a period of control for the aristocrats, who held all titles in their city's government offices and held power over the rest of the city's residents. It was the nobility who held power because to hold office required wealth and freedom. Many Italian city-states became wealthy and more independent, and by the 13th century, commoners were reacting to the sociopolitical injustice they faced. They, known as popolo, wanted to participate in the commune, the government formed by the city's nobility. Had the noble families not agreed to share governance, the city itself would be mired in warring factions, each vying for political dominance. Four city-states in particular created oligarchies in the mid-14th century to maintain their wealth and independence: Florence, Siena, Rome, and Genoa. These city-states were not systematically oligarchic, however: the nobility did not give up their authority so easily and there was always a power play between the two social parties. At the beginning of the 14th century, the Florentine government was controlled by the nobility. who was slowly corrupting the city and draining it of its wealth. In 1340, the popolo was in conflict with the nobles, seeking a... middle of paper...... Italian city-state prepared for war: the urban knights and the cavallata of Todi. Journal of Medieval History 39, no. 2 (2013): 240-253. Law, John E. and Bernadette Paton. Communes and Despots in Medieval and Renaissance Italy. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2010. Morreale, Laura K. “French Literature, Florentine Politics, and Vernacular Historical Writing, 1270-1348.” Speculum 85, no. 4 (2010): 868-893.Najemy, John M. Italy in the Age of the Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Piper, David. The illustrated history of art. London: Bounty Books, 2004. Rosenwein, Barbara H. Reading the Middle Ages. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010. Staley, Edgcumbe. Guilds of Florence. London: Methuen & Co., 1906. Stern, Laura Ikins. “Politics and Law in Renaissance Florence and Venice.” The AmericanJournal of Legal History 46, no. 2 (2004): 209-234.